Inequalities in the longevity of females and males aged 65+ in Spain, 2008-2021.The role of pension income

  1. Carlos Vidal-Meliá 1
  2. Manuel Ventura-Marco 1
  3. .Marta Regúlez-Castillo 2
  4. Juan Manuel Pérez-Salamero González 1
  1. 1 Department of Financial Economics and Actuarial Science, U. of Valencia
  2. 2 Department of Applied Economics III, U. of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU)
Revista:
Documentos de Trabajo (ICAE)

ISSN: 2341-2356

Año de publicación: 2023

Número: 8

Páginas: 1-40

Tipo: Documento de Trabajo

DIALNET GOOGLE SCHOLAR lock_openDocta Complutense editor

Otras publicaciones en: Documentos de Trabajo (ICAE)

Resumen

Los estudios que utilizan la cuantía de la pensión y/o la base reguladora como indicadores de la esperanza de vida son escasos. Este trabajo se centra en España, un país del que hasta hace poco se sabía muy poco sobre la esperanza de vida de los pensionistas según la cuantía de la pensión de jubilación (IP). Se utiliza un amplio conjunto de datos administrativos para estimar las desigualdades en longevidad entre pensionistas agrupados según cuantía de pensión (IP). Se presentan resultados de las tendencias de la mortalidad entre los pensionistas de 65 años o más para nueve ventanas móviles de seis años cada una para el periodo 2008-2021. Se encuentra que la esperanza de vida por cuantía de pensión (IP) a los 65 años (LE65) tiene una relación positiva tanto para hombres como para mujeres, y esto es así para todos los periodos analizados. Las diferencias absolutas en la LE65 entre los pensionistas con mayor y menor cuantía fluctúan a lo largo de las nueve ventanas móviles examinadas. En el caso de los hombres, las diferencias aumentan desde el principio (2,67 años) hasta los 4,06 años y luego tienden a disminuir (2,83 años). En el caso de las mujeres también hay fluctuaciones (entre 1,84 y 2,67 años), pero las diferencias absolutas son siempre menores que las observadas en los hombres. Otra conclusión es que la desigualdad socioeconómica en la longevidad por cuantía (IP) es menor cuando se mide con la moda (M65) que con LE65. También observamos que la población de pensionistas parece haberse visto más afectada por la pandemia de COVID19 que la población general y que dos grupos de pensionistas -el grupo de varones con menor cuantía y el grupo de mujeres con mayor - parecen haber mejorado su longevidad durante la pandemia.

Referencias bibliográficas

  • Aburto JM, Schöley J, Kashnitsky I et al. Quantifying impacts of the Covid-19 pandemic through life-expectancy losses: a population-level study of 29 countries. Int J Epidemiol 2022; 51:63–74. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyab207 28.
  • Adam, L. The Canadian pensioners mortality table: Information on mortality for the triennial period ending December 31, with data as at December 31, 2008 Quebec City, QC, 2012. Canada: Universite Laval. 2007. https://www.cia-ica.ca/docs/defaultsource/2013/213003e.pdf.
  • Alvarez, J.A.; Kallestrup-Lamb, M.; Kjærgaard, S. Linking retirement age to life expectancy does not lessen the demographic implications of unequal lifespans, Insur.: Math. Econ 2021, 99:363-375, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.insmatheco.2021.04.010.
  • Ardito, C.; D'Errico, A.; Leombruni, R.; Ricceri, F.; Costa, G. Increasing Inequalities in Mortality by Socioeconomic Position in Italy NETSPAR 2022, DP 01/2022‐004, https://www.netspar.nl/publicatie/increasing-inequalities-in-mortality-bysocioeconomic-position-in-italy/.
  • Auerbach, A.J.; Charles, K.; Coile, C.; et al. How the growing gap in life expectancy may affect retirement benefits and reforms. Geneva Pap Risk Insur Issues Pract 2017, 42(3):475-499. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41288-017-0057-0.
  • Ayuso, M.; Bravo, J.M.; Holzmann, R. On the heterogeneity in longevity among socioeconomic groups: scope, trends, and implications for earnings-related pension schemes. Glob J Hum Soc SciEcon 2016, 17(1):33–58. https://socialscienceresearch.org/index.php/GJHSS/article/view/1961.
  • BEL. Boletín de estadísticas laborales, 2023. Madrid: Ministerio de Trabajo, Migraciones y Seguridad Social. 2023. https://www.mites.gob.es/estadisticas/bel/index.htm.
  • Bosley, T.; Morris, M.; Glenn, K. Mortality by Career-Average Earnings Level. Actuarial study, 124, Social Security Administration, Office of the Chief Actuary. 2018. https://www.ssa.gov/OACT/NOTES/pdf_studies/study124.pdf.
  • Bramajo, O.; Grushka, C. Mortalidad diferencial de adultos mayores en Argentina, 2015-2016. El rol del ingreso previsional. Revista latinoamericana de población 2019, 14 (26): 46-69 https://doi.org/10.31406/relap2020.v14.i1.n26.3.
  • Camarda, C.G. MortalitySmooth: An R Package for Smoothing Poisson Counts with PSplines. J Stat Softw 2012, 50. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v050.i01.
  • Canudas-Romo V. Three measures of longevity: time trends and record values. Demography 2010, 47(2), 299-312. https://doi.org/10.1353/dem.0.0098.
  • Cheung, S.L.K; Robine, JM., Tu, E.JC.; Caselli G. Three dimensions of the survival curve: horizontalization, verticalization, and longevity extension. Demography 2005, 42, 243–258. https://doi.org/10.1353/dem.2005.0012.
  • Chiang, C.L. The Life Table and its Applications, Malabar, FL: Robert E. Krieger Publishers. 1984.
  • Clingman, M.; Burkhalter, K.; Chaplain, C. Money’s worth ratios under the OASDI program for hypothetical workers. 2022 Actuarial note 2021.7. Social Security Administration. Baltimore, Maryland.
  • CSWL, Continuous Sample of Working Lives, Muestra Continua de Vidas Laborales. Dirección General de Ordenación de la Seguridad Social, Ministerio de Inclusión, Seguridad Social y Migraciones, Gobierno de España, 2004-2021, http://www.segsocial.es/wps/portal/wss/internet/EstadisticasPresupuestosEstudios/Estad isticas/EST211 29.
  • Diaconu, V., van Raalte, A., Martikainen, P. Why we should monitor disparities in old age mortality with the modal age at death. PLoS ONE 2022, 17(2), e0263626. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0263626.
  • Diakite, K.; Devolder, P. Progressive Pension Formula and Life Expectancy Heterogeneity. Risks 2021, 9, 127. https://doi.org/10.3390/risks9070127.
  • Duggan, J.; Gillingham, R.; Greenlees, J. Mortality and Lifetime Income: Evidence from U.S. Social Security Records. IMF Economic Review 2008, 55, 566-594. https://doi.org/10.1057/imfsp.2008.21.
  • Edwards, G.; Soto, R.; Zurita, F. Life expectancy at retirement and income in Chile. Appl. Econ. Lett., 2023, 30(2), 126-130, https://doi.org/10.1080/13504851.2021.1979187.
  • Eurostat. Technical compilation guide for pension data in national accounts. Eurostat. 2020 edition. ISBN 978-92-76-21570-7.
  • Fors, S.; Wastesson, J.W.; Morin, L. Growing Income-Based Inequalities in Old-Age Life Expectancy in Sweden, 2006-2015. Demography 2021, 58(6):2117-2138. https://doi.org/10.1215/00703370-9456514.
  • Garvey, A.M., Pérez-Salamero González, J.M., Ventura-Marco, M Carlos; Vidal-Meliá C. balance Transforming the supplementary table on pension liabilities (Table 29) into an actuarial sheet, Public Money Manag, 2022 https://doi.org/10.1080/09540962.2022.2144362.
  • Goldman, D.P.; Orszag, P.R. The Growing Gap in Life Expectancy: Using the Future Elderly Model to Estimate Implications for Social Security and Medicare. Am Econ Rev 2014, 104(5):230-233. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.104.5.230.
  • González, L.; Rodríguez-González, A. Inequality in Mortality in Spain. Fisc Stud 2021, 42:103-121. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-5890.12262.
  • Hann, P.; Kemptner, D.; Lüther, H. The rising longevity gap by lifetime earnings - Distributional implications for the pension system, J. Econ. Ageing 2020, 17, 100199. https://10.1016/j.jeoa.2019.100199.
  • Hiam L, Minton J, McKee M. What can lifespan variation reveal that life expectancy hides? Comparison of five high-income countries. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 2021;114(8):389-399. https://10.1177/01410768211011742.
  • Holzmann, R.; Alonso-García, J.; Labit-Hardy, H.; Villegas, A. M. NDC Schemes and Heterogeneity in Longevity: Proposals for Redesign. Social Protection and Jobs Discussion Paper, no. 1913. 2019, https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/31637.
  • Instituto Nacional de Estadística (INE) Population mortality tables for Spain by year, sex, age and functions. 2022. https://www.ine.es/jaxiT3/Tabla.htm?t=27153&L=1 Accessed 21 april 2023.
  • Instituto Nacional de Estadística (INE). Pension Table. lnventory of Methods and Sources. https://www.ine.es/en/daco/daco42/cne10/inv_fuentesymetodos_TP_en.pdf 2020 30.
  • Jijiie, A.; Alonso-García, J.; Arnold, S. Mortality by socio-economic class and its impact on the retirement schemes: how to render the systems fairer? Eur. Actuar. J. 2021, https://doi.org/10.1007/s13385-021-00295-w.
  • Kannisto, V. Mode and Dispersion of the Length of Life. Population 2001, 13(1),159171; https://www.persee.fr/doc/pop_0032-4663_2001_hos_13_1_7235.
  • Kibele, E.U.B.; Jasilionis, D.; Shkolnikov, V.M. Widening socioeconomic differences in mortality among men aged 65 years and older in Germany. J Epidemiol Community Health 2013, 67:453–7. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2012-201761.
  • Knell, M. How Automatic Adjustment Factors Affect the Internal Rate of Return of PAYG Pension Systems. J Pension Econ Financ 2010 9(1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1474747209990035.
  • Kulhánová, I.; Bacigalupe, A.; Eikemo, T. A.; Borrell, C.; Regidor, E.; Esnaola, S.; Mackenbach J. P. & Eurothine consortium Why does Spain have smaller inequalities in mortality? An exploration of potential explanations. Eur. J. Public Health 2014 24(3):370-377. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/cku006.
  • Lampert T, Hoebel J, Kroll LE. Social differences in mortality and life expectancy in Germany. Current situation and trends. J Health Monit. 2019 Mar 14;4(1):3-14. https://doi.org/10.25646/5872.
  • Leimer, D. R., A Guide to Social Security Money’s Worth Issues. Social Security Bulletin, 1996 58 (2), 3-20.
  • Leimer, D. R., Cohort-Specific Measures of Lifetime Social Security Taxes and Benefits. Social Security Administration, Office of Policy Office of Research, Evaluation, and Statistics. WP-110 2007 1-104.
  • Li, N. The probabilistic life table and its applications to Canada. Can Stud Popul 2015, 42(1-2):117-129. https://doi.org/10.25336/P65W28.
  • Mazza, A.; Punzo, A. DBKGrad: An R Package for Mortality Rates Graduation by Discrete Beta Kernel Techniques. J Stat Softw 2014, 57(2):1-18. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v057.c02.
  • Moraga, M.; Ramos, R. An estimate of pension system financial returns. Analytical articles. Economic Bulletin. 3-2020. Bank of Spain. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. (NASEM). The Growing Gap in Life Expectancy by Income: Implications for Federal Programs and Policy Responses. 2015 The National Academies Press.
  • Navarro, E., Requena, P. Impact of COVID-19 on Spanish mortality rates in 2020 by age and sex, Journal of Public Health 2023; fdad023, https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdad023.
  • Núñez-Antón, V.; Pérez-Salamero González, J.M.; Regúlez-Castillo, M.; Vidal-Meliá, C. Improving the Representativeness of a Simple Random Sample: An Optimization Model and Its Application to the Continuous Sample of Working Lives. Mathematics. 2020, 8(8):1225. https://doi.org/10.3390/math8081225.
  • Office of the Superintendent of Financial Institutions Canada (OSFIC). Old Age Security Program Mortality Experience. Office of the Chief Actuary, Actuarial Study No. 23: March, 2022. https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2022/bsifosfi/IN5-1-23-2022-eng.pdf.
  • Office of the Superintendent of Financial Institutions Canada (OSFIC). Actuarial report (revised) Canada pension plan as at 31 December 2015. Office of the Chief Actuary, Actuarial Study No. 23: March, 2022. https://www.osfibsif.gc.ca/Eng/Docs/cpp27rev.pdf.
  • Pérez-Salamero González, J. M.; Regúlez-Castillo, M.; Vidal-Meliá, C. Differences in life expectancy between self-employed workers and paid employees when retirement pensioners: evidence from Spanish social security records. Eur J Popul 2021, 37 (3):697-725. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs10680-021-09585-1.
  • Pérez-Salamero González, J.M., Regúlez-Castillo, M., Ventura-Marco, M. Vidal-Meliá, C. Mortality and life expectancy trends in Spain by pension income level for male pensioners in the general regime retiring at the statutory age, 2005–2018. Int J Equity Health 21, 96 2022. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-022-01697-2.
  • Pérez-Salamero González, J.M.; Regúlez-Castillo, M.; Vidal-Meliá, C. The continuous sample of working lives: improving its representativeness. SERIEs-J Span Econon 2017, 8:43-95. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13209-017-0154-0.
  • Permanyer, I.; Spijker, J.; Blanes, A.; Renteria, E. Longevity and Lifespan Variation by Educational Attainment in Spain: 1960-2015. Demography 2018, 55(6):2045-2070. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-018-0718-z.
  • Regidor, E.; Kunst, A.E.; Rodríguez-Artalejo, F.; et al. Small socio-economic differences in mortality in Spanish older people Eur. J. Public Health 2012, 22:80-85. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurpub/ckr05.
  • Reznik, G.L.; Couch, K.A.; Tamborini, C.R.; Iams, H.M. Changing Longevity, Social Security Retirement Benefits, and Potential Adjustments Soc Secur Bull 2021, 81(3):1934. https://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v81n3/v81n3p19.html.
  • Reznik, G.L.; Couch, K.A.; Tamborini, C.R.; Iams, H.M. Longevity-Related Options for Social Security: a Microsimulation Approach to Retirement Age and Mortality Adjustments. J Policy Anal Manage 2019, 38(1):210-238. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30572415/.
  • Sanchez-Romero, M.; Lee, R D.; Prskawetza, A. Redistributive effects of different pension systems when longevity varies by socioeconomic status J. Econ. Ageing 2020, 17, 100259, https://10.1016/j.jeoa.2020.100259.
  • Scherbov, S.; Ediev, D. Significance of life table estimates for small populations: Simulation based study of standard errors. Demogr. Res. 2011, 24:527-50. https://doi.org/10.4054/DemRes.2011.24.22.
  • Seaman R, Riffe T, Leyland AH, Popham F, van Raalte A. The increasing lifespan variation gradient by area-level deprivation: a decomposition analysis of Scotland 1981–2011. Soc Sci Med 2019; 230: 147–157.
  • Sheshinski E, Caliendo FN. Social Security and the increasing longevity gap. J Public Econ Theory. 2021; 23:29–52.
  • Shi, J.; Tarkiainen, L.; Martikainen, P.; van Raalte, A. The impact of income definitions on mortality inequalities. SSM Popul Health. 2021, 15:100915. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssmph.2021.100915 32.
  • Simonovits, A.; Lackó, M. A simple estimation of the longevity gap and redistribution in the pension system. Acta Oeconomica. 2023, 73 2, 275–284. https://doi.org/10.1556/032.2023.00016.
  • Solé-Auró, A.; Martín, U.; Domínguez Rodríguez, A. Educational Inequalities in Life and Healthy Life Expectancies among the 50-Plus in Spain. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 3558. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17103558.
  • Tetzlaff, F.; Epping, J.; Sperlich, S.; et al. Widening income inequalities in life expectancy? Analysing time trends based on German health insurance data. J Epidemiol Community Health 2020, 74:592-597. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2019-212966.
  • Van Raalte, A., Caswell H. Perturbation analysis of indices of lifespan variability. Demography 2013, 50(5), 1615-40. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13524-013-0223-3.
  • Van Raalte, A.; Sasson, I.; Martikainen, P.The case for monitoring life-span inequality.Science 2018, 362,1002-1004. https://doi.org/1126/science.aau5811.
  • Vidal-Meliá, C.; Boado-Penas, M.C. Navarro-Cabo, F. Notional defined contribution pension schemes: why does only Sweden distribute the survivor dividend?, Journal of Economic Policy Reform, 2016 19 (3), 200-220, https://doi.org/10.1080/17487870.2015.1028547.
  • Waldron, H. Trends in Mortality Differentials and Life Expectancy for Male Social Security-Covered Workers, by Socioeconomic Status. Soc Secur Bull 2007, 67(3):1-28. https://www.ssa.gov/policy/docs/ssb/v67n3/v67n3p1.html.
  • Wen, J.; Kleinow, T.; Cairns, A.J.G. Trends in Canadian Mortality by Pension Level: Evidence from the CPP and QPP, N Am Act J, 2020, 24(4):533-561. https://doi.org/10.1080/10920277.2019.1679190.
  • Wenau, G.; Grigoriev, P.; Shkolnikov, V. Socioeconomic Disparities in Life Expectancy Gains among Retired German Men, 1997-2016. J Epidemiol Community Health 2019, 73:605-611. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2018-211742.
  • Wilmoth, J.R. and Horiuchi S. Rectangularization revisited: variability of age at death within human populations. Demography, 1999 36(4), 475-495. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10604076/.
  • Wood, S.N. Generalized Additive Models: An Introduction with R, Second Edition (2nd ed.). Chapman and Hall/CRC 2017 https://doi.org/10.1201/9781315370279.
Fuente de los datos: Dialnet