A systematic review of key strategies for teachers and parents for developing an effective intervention to reduce the risk of online child sexual abuse
- Galindo-Dominguez, Héctor 1
- Delgado de Frutos, Nahia 1
- Sainz De-la-Maza, Martín 1
- Losada , Daniel 1
-
1
Universidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea
info
Universidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea
Lejona, España
ISSN: 1696-2095
Year of publication: 2024
Issue Title: 1 de diciembre de 2024
Volume: 22
Issue: 64
Pages: 671-698
Type: Article
More publications in: Electronic journal of research in educational psychology
Abstract
With the advent of new technologies, cases of online child sexual abuse have become notoriously widespread, rendering it necessary for both teachers and parents to know how to deal with this phenomenon. The aim of this study was to find out which were the main interventions and strategies that both teachers and parents could apply within their immediate environment to reduce the risk of online child sexual harassment. Using the PRISMA approach for systematic reviews, all literature about strategies and interventions for reducing the risk of online child sexual abuse from a variety of databases was analyzed. When possible, Cohen’s d was used to measure the effect size of the interventions. Based on 38 included papers out of a total of 5644, it was found 13 strategies that teachers could commonly use with their students, such as reading real-life testimonies of grooming, as well as 7 strategies that parents could commonly use with their children, such as establishing rules about the use of the internet. The effect sizes showed a reduction in the prevalence of grooming [Experimental (d = -.71 to -.03); Control (d = .00 to .50)] and an increase in knowledge and attitudes [Experimental (d = .45 to 1.66); Control (d = -.03 to .22)] in favor of the students that participated in the interventions. The present results suggest that using these kind of interventions and strategies may bring positive results for children and teenagers in order to prevent and cope with online child sexual abuse.
Bibliographic References
- Agulhas, R., Figueiredo, N., Alexandre, J., & Cifuentes, P. (2017). Vamos Prevenir! As Aven-turas do Búzio e da Coral. Edições Sílabo.
- Alexandre, J.D., Agulhas, R., Carvalho, H., & Lopes, C. (2021). “The adventures of Conch and Coral” – The benefits of an universal prevention board game for children aged be-tween 6-10. Análise Psicológica, 39(1), 53-64. http://dx.doi.org/10.14417/ap.1601 *
- Aljuboori, D., Seneviratne-Eglin, E., Swiergala, E., & Guerra, C. (2021). Associations be-tween Family Support and Online Sexual Abuse in Chilean Adolescents: The Media-tional Role of Online Risk Behaviors. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 30(2), 192-206. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538712.2021.1875280
- Bartau-Rojas, I., Aierbe-Barandiaran, A., & Oregui-González, E. (2018). Parental mediation of the Internet use of Primary students: Beliefs, strategies and difficulties. Comunicar, 54, 71-79. https://doi.org/10.3916/C54-2018-07
- Bergen, E., Davidson, J., Schulz, A., Schuhmann, P., Johansson, A., Santtila, P., & Jern, P. (2014). The effects of using identity deception and suggesting secrecy on the out-comes of adult-adult and adult-child or -adolescent online sexual interactions. Victims and Offenders, 9(3), 276-298. https://doi.org/10.1080/15564886.2013.873750
- Brady, S. T., Reeves, S. L., Garcia, J., Purdie-Vaughns, V., Cook, J. E., Taborsky-Barba, S., Tomasetti, S., Davis, E. M., & Cohen, G. L. (2016). The psychology of the affirmed learner: Spontaneous self-affirmation in the face of stress. Journal of Educational Psy-chology, 108(3), 353-373. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000091
- Brisson, B. M., Dicke, A. L., Gaspard, H., Häfner, I., Flunger, B., Nagengast, B., & Tra-utwein, U. (2017). Short intervention, sustained effects: Promoting students’ math competence beliefs, effort, and achievement. American Educational Research Journal, 54(6), 1048-1078. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831217716084
- Brown, J. & Saied-Tessier, A. (2015). Preventing child sexual abuse: towards a national strat-egy for England. NSPCC.
- Calvete, E., Cortazar, N., Fernández-González, L., Echezarraga, A., Beranuy, M., León, A., González-Cabrera, J., & Orue, I. (2021). Effects of a brief preventive intervention in cyberbullying and grooming in adolescents. Psychosocial intervention, 30(2), 75-84. https://doi.org/10.5093/pi2020a22 *
- Calvete, E., Fernández-Gonzalez, L., Orue, I., Echezarraga, A., Royuela-Colomer, E., Cor-tazar, N., Muga, J., Longa, M., & Yeager, D. S. (2019). The effect of an intervention teaching adolescents that people can change on depressive symptoms, cognitive sche-mas, and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis hormones. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 47(9), 1533-1546. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-019-00538-1
- Calvete, E., Orue, I., & Gámez-Guadix, M. (2022). A preventive Intervention to reduce risk of online grooming among adolescents. Psychosocial intervention, 31(3), 177-184. https://doi.org/10.5093/pi2022a14 *
- Carvalho, D. P. (2017). Vamos Prevenir! As Aventuras do Búzio e da Coral – Avaliação do Impacto do Jogo de Prevenção do Abuso Sexual em Crianças dos 6 aos 10 Anos de Idade [Dissertation of degree]. ISCTE-IUL. *
- Child Molestation Research & Prevention Institute. (n.d.). CMRPI Prevention Plan. https://www.childmolestationprevention.org/cmrpi-prevention-plan
- Coop, J.E., Mumford, E.A., & Taylor, B. (2021). Online sexual harassment and cyberbullying in a nationally representative sample of teens: prevalence, predictors, and consequenc-es. Journal of Adolescence, 93, 202-211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2021.10.003 *
- Craven, S., Brown, S., & Cilchrist, E. (2007). Current responses to sexual grooming: implica-tion for prevention. The howard journal of crime and justice, 46(1), 60-71. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2311.2007.00454.x *
- Christen, A. (2009). Transforming the Classroom for Collaborative Learning in the 21st Cen-tury. Techniques: Connecting Education and Careers, 84(1), 28–31.
- Crombie, G., & Trinneer, A. (2003). Children and Internet safety: An evaluation of the Missing Program. A report to the Research and Evaluation Section of the National Crime Pre-vention Centre of Justice Canada. University of Otta-wa.https://doi.org/10.1177/104973150935198
- De Santisteban, P., & Gámez-Guadix, M. (2018a). Longitudinal and reciprocal relationships of depression among minors with online sexual solicitations and interactions with adults. Cyberpsychology, behavior and social networking, 21(6), 355-360. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2017.0641*
- De Santisteban, P., & Gámez-Guadix, M. (2018b). Prevalence and risk factors among minors for online sexual solicitations and interactions with adults. The Journal of Sex Re-search, 55(7), 939–950. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2017.1386763 *
- Dombrowski, S. C., LeMasney, J. W., Ahia, C. E., & Dickson, S. A. (2004). Protecting Chil-dren From Online Sexual Predators: Technological, Psychoeducational, and Legal Considerations. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 35(1), 65–73. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.35.1.65 *
- Fernández-González, L., Calvete, E., & Sánchez-Álvarez, N. (2020). Efficacy of a brief inter-vention based on an incremental theory of personality in the prevention of adolescent dating violence: A randomized controlled trial. Psychosocial Intervention, 29(1), 9-18. https://doi.org/10.5093/pi2019a14
- Fieldman, J.P., & Crespi, T.D. (2002). Child sexual abuse: offenders, disclosure, and school-based initiatives. Adolescence, 37(145), 151-160. *
- Finkelhor, D. (1999). Victimología infantil. In J. Sanmartin (Ed.), Violencia contra niños. Ariel.
- Forni, G., Pietronigro, A., Tiwana, N., Gandolfi, C. E., Del Castillo, G., Mosillo, M., & Pellai, A. (2020). Little red riding hood in the social forest. Online grooming as a public health issue: A narrative review. Annali Di Igiene: Medicina Preventiva e Di Comunita, 32(3), 305-318. https://doi.org/10.7416/ai.2020.2353
- Author (2020). Estadística para no estadísticos. Una guía básica sobre la metodología cuanti-tativa de trabajos académicos. 3Ciencias.
- Author, H., Perines, H., Verde, A., & Valero, J.M. (2022a). Understanding the pedagogical gap between the educational research and the reality of teachers: An analysis of the difficulties and proposals. Educacion XX1, 25(2), 173-200. https://doi.org/10.5944/educxx1.29877
- Author, H., Valero, J.M., Perines, H., & Verde, A. (2022b). Design and validation of the Scale of Perception towards Educational Research in university and non-university teachers. Estudios sobre Educación, 43, 1-28. https://doi.org/10.15581/004.43.004
- Gámez-Guadix, M., Almendros, C., Calvete, E., & De Santisteban, P. (2018a). Persuasion strategies and sexual solicitations and interactions in online sexual grooming of adoles-cents: Modeling direct and indirect pathways. Journal of Adolescence, 63, 11-18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2017.12.002 *
- Gámez-Guadix, M., De Santisteban, P., & Alcazar, M.A. (2018b). The Construction and Psy-chometric Properties of the Questionnaire for Online Sexual Solicitation and Interac-tion of Minors With Adults. Sexual Abuse, 30(8), 975-991. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063217724766
- Gámez-Guadix, M., Román, F.J., Mateos, E., & De Santisteban, P. (2021a). Creencias erró-neas sobre el abuso sexual online de menores (“Child Grooming”) y evaluación de un programa de prevención. Behavioral Psychology, 29(2), 283-296. https://doi.org/10.51668/bp.8321204s *
- Gámez-Guadix, M., De Santisteban, P., Wachs, S., & Wright, M. (2021b). Unraveling cyber sexual abuse of minors: Psychometrics properties of the Multidimensional Online Grooming Questionnaire and prevalence by sex and age. Child Abuse & Neglect, 120, 105250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.105250
- Grazina, T. (2016). Vamos prevenir! As Aventuras do Búzio e da Coral: avaliação do impacto em crianças e respetivos cuidadores [Dissertation of master’s degree]. ISCTE-IUL. *
- GMSA. (2017). Sexual extorsion of children. Child Helpline International. https://www.gsma.com/publicpolicy/wp-content/uploads/2017/03/Sexual-Extortion-of-Children_GSMA-CHI_V1.pdf *
- Guerra, C., Pinto-Cortez, C., Toro, E., Efthymiadou, E., & Quayle, E. (2021). Online sexual harassment and depression in Chilean adolescents: Variations based on gender and age of the offenders. Child Abuse & Neglect, 120, 105219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2021.105219
- Gushwa, M., Bernier, J., Robinson, D. (2019). Advancing Child Sexual Abuse Prevention in Schools: An Exploration of the Effectiveness of the Enough! Online Training Program for K-12 Teachers. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 28(2), 144-159. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538712.2018.1477000 *
- Hanson, E. (2017). Promising Therapeutic Approaches for Children, Young People and their Families Following Online Sexual Abuse. In J. Brown (Ed.), Online Risk to Children: Impact, Protection and Prevention (1st Ed.). Wiley. *
- Jones, L., Mitchell, K., & Finkelhor, D. (2012). Trends in youth Internet victimization: Find-ings from three youth Internet safety surveys 2000–2010. Journal of Adolescent Health, 50, 179–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2011.09.015
- Jonsson, L.S., Fredlund, C., Priebe, G., Wadsby, M., Göran, C. (2019). Online sexual abuse of adolescents by a perpetrator met online: a cross-sectional study. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 13, 32. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-019-0292-1
- Magarey, A. M., Pettman, T. L., Wilson, A., & Mastersson, N. (2013). Changes in primary school children's behavior, knowledge, attitudes, and environments related to nutrition and physical activity. International Scholarly Research Notices Obesity, 752081, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/752081
- Martin, J., & Alaggia, R. (2013). Sexual Abuse Images in Cyberspace: Expanding the Ecology of the Child. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 22(4), 398-415. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538712.2013.781091
- Mishna, F., Cook, C., Saini, M., Wu, M. J., & MacFadden, R. (2011). Interventions to prevent and reduce cyber abuse of youth: A systematic review. Research on Social Work Prac-tice, 21(1), 5–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731509351988 *
- Miu, A. S., & Yeager, D. S. (2015). Preventing symptoms of depression by teaching adoles-cents that people can change: Effects of a brief incremental theory of personality inter-vention at 9-month follow-up. Clinical Psychological Science, 3(5), 726-743. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702614548317
- Moita, M. (2016). Avaliação de Impacto do Jogo “Vamos Prevenir! As Aventuras do Búzio e da Coral”: jogo de prevenção primária do abuso sexual para crianças entre os 6 e os 10 anos”. [Dissertation of master’s degree]. ISCTE-IUL. *
- Montiel, I. (2018). Ciberacoso sexual en adolescentes: creencias erróneas [Online sexual har-assment among teenagers: Erroneous beliefs]. Revista Iberoamericana de Psicología, 11(3), 19-29. https://doi.org/10.33881/2027-1786.rip.11302
- Mota, D., & Manita, C. (2021). Online grooming: Prevention, intervention and education sec-tor responses. Saber & Educar, 30, 1-10. http://dx.doi.org/10.17346/se.vol30.419 *
- Nur, G., Babadağı, Z., Karabekiroğlu, K., Yüce, M., & Akbaş, S. (2015). Abuse Characteris-tics and Psychiatric Consequences Associated with Online Sexual Abuse. Cyberpsy-chology, Behavior, and social networking, 18(6), 333-336. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2014.0494
- Nixon, C. A., Moore, H. J., Douthwaite, W., Gibson, E. L., Vogele, C., & KreichaufToyBox-study group, S. (2012). Identifying effective behavioural models and behavior change strategies underpinning preschool-and school-based obesity prevention interventions aimed at 4–6-year-olds: a systematic review. Obesity Reviews, 13, 106–117. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-789X.2011.00962.x/abstract
- Oliva, A., Antolín-Suárez, L., & Rodríguez-Meirinhos, A. (2019). Uncovering the link be-tween self-control, age, and psychological maladjustment among Spanish adolescents and young adults. Psychosocial Intervention, 28(1), 49-55. https://doi.org/10.5093/pi2019a1
- Ortega-Barón, J., González-Cabrera, J., Machimbarrena, J.M., & Montiel, I. (2021). Safe-ty.Net: A Pilot Study on a Multi-Risk Internet Prevention Program. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(8), 4249. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18084249 *
- Paranal, R., Washington, K., & Derrick, C. (2012). Utilizing Online Training for Child Sexual Abuse Prevention: Benefits and Limitations. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 21(5), 507-520. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538712.2012.697106 *
- Patterson, A., Rychman, L., & Guerra, C. (2022). A Systematic Review of the Education and Awareness Interventions to Prevent Online Child Sexual Abuse. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma, 15, 857-867. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40653-022-00440-x
- Quayle, E., Lööf, L., Soo, K., & Ainsaar, M. (2012). Methodological issues. In M. Ainsaar & L. Lööf (Eds.), Online behavior related to child sexual abuse: Literature report (pp. 9–16). ROBERT.
- RAINN. (2021). Talking to your kids about sexual assault. RAINN. https://www.rainn.org/articles/talking-your-kids-about-sexual-assault
- Raymond, K.K. (2009). Online child grooming: a literature review on the misuse of social networking sites for grooming children for sexual offences. AIC Reports. Research and Public Policy Series. https://www.aic.gov.au/sites/default/files/2020-05/rpp103.pdf *
- Rice, E., Winetrobe, H., Holloway, I.W., Montoya, J., Plant, A., & Kordic, T. (2015). Cell Phone Internet Access, Online Sexual Solicitation, Partner Seeking, and Sexual Risk Behavior Among Adolescents. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 44, 755-763. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-014-0366-3 *
- Santre, S., & Pumpaibool, T. (2022). Effects of Blended Learning Program for Cyber Sexual Harassment Prevention among Female High School Students in Bangkok, Thailand. In-ternational Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(13), 8209. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19138209 *
- Scarduzio, J.A., Sheff, S.E., & Smith, M. (2018). Coping and Sexual Harassment: How Vic-tims Cope across Multiple Settings. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 47, 327-340. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-017-1065-7 *
- Schilder, J.D., Brusselaers, M.B.J., Bogaerts, S. (2016). The Effectiveness of an Intervention to Promote Awareness and Reduce Online Risk Behavior in Early Adolescence. Jour-nal of Youth and Adolescence, 45, 286-300. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-015-0401-2 *
- Silverman, A., Logel, C., & Cohen, G. L. (2013). Self-affirmation as a deliberate coping strat-egy: The moderating role of choice. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 49(1), 93-98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2012.08.005
- Smallbone, S., & Wortley, R. (2017). Preventing child sexual abuse online. In J. Brown (ed.) Online Risk to Children: Impact, Protection and Prevention. Wiley. *
- Sweeney, A. M., & Moyer, A. (2015). Self-affirmation and responses to health messages: A meta-analysis on intentions and behavior. Health Psychology, 34(2), 149-159. https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0000110
- Sweeting, H., Blake, C., Riddell, J., Barrett, S., Mitchell, K.R. (2022). Sexual harassment in secondary school: Prevalence and ambiguities. A mixed methods study in Scottish schools. Plos ONE, 17(2), e0262248. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0262248 *
- Tang, D., Wei, C., & Khader, M. (2015). Understanding the behavioral aspects of cyber sexu-al grooming: Implications for law enforcement. International Journal of Police Science & Management, 17(1), 40-49. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461355714566782 *
- Thambo, S., Tshifhumulo, R., Amaechi, K.O., Mabale, D. (2019). Resilience in women - strat-egies female students employ to deal with online sexual harassment. Journal of Gen-der, Information and Development in Africa, 8(2), 1-33. http://dx.doi.org/10.31920/2050-4284/2019/8n2a6 *
- UNESCO. (2015). Emerging evidence, lessons and practice in comprehensive sexuality educa-tion. A global review. UNESCO. https://www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/CSE_Global_Review_2015.pdf
- UNICEF. (2020). What works to prevent online and offline child sexual exploitation and abuse? Review of national education strategies in East Asia and the Pacific. UNICEF. https://www.unicef.org/eap/media/4706/file *
- Valkenburg, P.M., & Peter, J. (2011). Online Communication Among Adolescents: An Inte-grated Model of Its Attraction, Opportunities, and Risks. Journal of Adolescent Health, 48(2), 121-127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2010.08.020 *
- Van der Hof, S & Koops, B. (2011). Adolescents and Cybercrime: Navigating between Free-dom and Control. Policy & Internet, 3(2) 51-78 .https://doi.org/10.2202/1944-2866.1121 *
- Van der Knaap, L.M., Cuijpers, C.M. (2014). Regulating Online Sexual Solicitation: Towards Evidence-Based Policy and Regulation. In: Van der Hof, S., Van den Berg, B., Schermer, B. (eds) Minding Minors Wandering the Web: Regulating Online Child Safe-ty. Information Technology and Law Series, vol 24. T.M.C. Asser Press, The Hague. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-005-3_15
- Van Royen, K. (2017). Sexy detection?! Monitoring of sexual harassment among adolescents on social networking sites in an effective and desirable way. Universiteit Antwerpen. *
- Wachs, S., Whittle, H. C., Hamilton-Giachritsis, C., Wolf, K. D., Vazsonyi, A. T., & Junger, M. (2018). Correlates of mono-and dual-victims of cybergrooming and cyberbullying: Evidence from four countries. Cyberpsychology, Behavior and Social Networking, 21(2), 91-98. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2016.0733
- Walsh, K., Zwi, S., Woolfenden, S. & Shlonsky, A. (2015). School-Based Education Pro-grams for the Prevention of Child Sexual Abuse: A Cochrane Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. The Cochrane Collaboration. https://doi.org/10.1177/104973151561970
- Whittle, H., Hamilton-Giachritsis, C., Beech, A., & Collings, G. (2013). A review of young people's vulnerabilities to online grooming. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 18(1), 135-146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2012.11.008 *
- Wortley, R., & Smallbone, S. (2006). Child Pornography on the Internet. Problem-Oriented guides for police problem-specific guides series (nº 41). U.S. Department of Justice. Office of Community Oriented Policing Services. http://www.ncdsv.org/images/cops_child-pornography-on-the-internet_5-2006.pdf *
- Wurtele, S. K. (2017). Preventing cyber sexual solicitation of adolescents. In R. Alexander (Ed.),Research and practices in child maltreatment prevention (Vol. 1 , pp. 361-393). STM Learning.*
- Wurtele, S.K., & Kenny, M.C. (2016). Technology-Related Sexual Solicitation of Adoles-cents: A Review of Prevention Efforts. Child Abuse Review, 25(5), 332-344. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/car.2445 *
- Wurtele, S.K., Kast, L.C., & Meizer, A.M. (1992). Sexual abuse prevention education for young children: A comparison of teachers and parents as instructors. Child Abuse and Neglect, 16, 865-875. 10.1016/0145-2134(92)90088-9
- Wurtele, S.K. (2017). Preventing cyber sexual solicitation of adolescents. In R. Alexander (Ed.), Research and Practices in child maltreatment prevention (pp. 361-393). STM Learning. *
- Yang, S.J., Stewart, R., Lee, J.Y., Kim, J.M., Kim, S.W., Shin, I.S., & Yoon, J.S. (2014). Prevalence and Correlates of Problematic Internet Experiences and Computer-Using Time: A Two-Year Longitudinal Study in Korean School Children. Psychiatry Investi-gation, 11(1), 24-31. https://doi.org/10.4306%2Fpi.2014.11.1.24 *
- Ybarra, M.L., & Petras, H. (2021). Groups of Sexual Violence Perpetration in a National Sample of Youth 13–25 Years of Age. Prevention Science, 22, 205-215. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-020-01172-w *
- Yeager, D. S., Dahl, R. E., & Dweck, C. S. (2018). Why interventions to influence adolescent behavior often fail but could succeed. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 13(1), 101-122. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617722620
- * Documents from the systematic review.